|
|
REFERENCES
1.
Wijdicks EF: The diagnosis of brain death. N Engl
J Med 344:1215, 2001.
2.
Haupt WF, Rudolf J: European brain death codes:
A comparison of national guidelines. J Neurol 246:432, 1999.
3.
Cushing H: Some experimental and clinical observations
concerning states of increased intracranial tension. The Mütter Lecture for
1901. Am J Med Sci 124:375, 1902.
4.
Bertrand I, Lhermitte F, Antoine B, Ducrot H: Nécroses
massives du système nerveux central dans une survie artificielle. Rev Neurol
(Paris) 101:101, 1959.
5.
Mollaret P, Goulon M: Le coma dépassé
(mémoire préliminaire). Rev Neurol (Paris) 101:3, 1959.
6.
A definition of irreversible coma: Report of the
Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain
Death. JAMA 205:337, 1968.
7.
International Federation of Societies for Electroencephalography
and Clinical Neurophysiology: Report of the Committee on Cessation of Cerebral Function.
Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 37:521, 1974.
8.
Guidelines for the Determination of Death. Report
of the Medical Consultants on the Diagnosis of Death to the President's Commission
for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research.
JAMA 246:2184, 1981.
9.
Diagnosis of brain death. Statement issued by the
honorary secretary of the Conference of Medical Royal Colleges and Their Faculties
in the United Kingdom on 11 October 1976. Br Med J 2:1187, 1976.
10.
Practice parameters for determining brain death
in adults: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy
of Neurology. Neurology 45:1012, 1995.
11.
Yoshioka T, Sugimoto H, Uenishi M, et al: Prolonged
hemodynamic maintenance by the combined administration of vasopressin and epinephrine
in brain death: A clinical study. Neurosurgery 18:565, 1986.
12.
Feldman DM, Borgida AF, Rodis JF, et al: Irreversible
maternal brain injury during pregnancy: A case report and review of the literature.
Obstet Gynecol Surv 55:708, 2000.
13.
Klatzo I: Presidential address: Neuropathological
aspects of brain oedema. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 26:1, 1967.
14.
Klatzo I: Brain oedema following brain ischaemia
and the influence of therapy. Br J Anaesth 57:18, 1985.
15.
Klatzo I: Pathophysiological aspects of brain
edema. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 72:236, 1987.
16.
Wahl M, Unterberg A, Baethmann A, Schilling L:
Mediators of blood-brain barrier dysfunction and formation of vasogenic brain edema.
J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 8:621, 1988.
17.
Walker AE, Diamond EL, Moseley J: The neuropathological
findings in irreversible coma. A critique of the "respirator brain." J Neuropathol
Exp Neurol 34:295, 1975.
18.
Ingvar DH: Brain death-total brain infarction.
Acta Anaesthesiol Scand Suppl 45:129, 1971.
19.
Diagnosis of death. Memorandum issued by the honorary
secretary of the Conference of Medical Royal Colleges and their faculties in the
United Kingdom on 15 January 1979. Br Med J 1:332, 1979.
20.
Pallis C: Further thoughts on brainstem death.
Anaesth Intensive Care 23:20, 1995.
21.
Grigg MM, Kelly MA, Celesia GG, et al: Electroencephalographic
activity after brain death. Arch Neurol 44:948, 1987.
22.
Bremer F: L'activité cérébrale
au cours du sommeil et de la narcose. Contribution à l'étude du mécanisme
du sommeil. Bull Acad R Med Belg 2:68, 1937.
23.
Moruzzi G, Magoun HW: Brainstem reticular formation
and activation of the EEG. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1:455, 1949.
24.
Segundo JP, Arana A, French JD: Behavioral arousal
by stimulation of the brain in the monkey. J Neurosurg 12:601, 1955.
25.
Zeman A: Consciousness. Brain 124:1263, 2001.
26.
Hockaday JM, Potts F, Epstein E, et al: Electroencephalographic
changes in acute cerebral anoxia from cardiac or respiratory arrest. Electroencephalogr
Clin Neurophysiol 18:575, 1965.
27.
Schwab RS, Potts F, Bonazzi A: EEG as aid in determining
death in the presence of cardiac activity (ethical, legal and medical aspects), abstracted.
Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 15:147, 1962.
28.
Sharbrough FW, Sundt TM Jr: The value of simultaneous
EEG and blood flow monitoring during carotid endarterectomy. Electroencephalogr
Clin Neurophysiol 37:423, 1979.
29.
Sundt TM Jr, Sharbrough EW, Anderson RE, et al:
Cerebral blood flow measurements and electroencephalograms during carotid endarterectomy.
J Neurosurg 41:310, 1974.
30.
Paolin A, Manuali A, Di Paola F, et al: Reliability
in diagnosis of brain death. Intensive Care Med 21:657, 1995.
31.
Pitts RF, Magoun HW, Rason SW: The origin of respiratory
rhythmicity. Am J Physiol 127:654, 1939.
32.
Hukuhara T Jr: Neuronal organization of the central
respiratory mechanisms of the brain of the cat. Acta Neurobiol Exp 33:219, 1973.
33.
Alexander RS: Tonic and reflex functions of medullary
sympathetic cardiovascular centers. J Neurophysiol 9:205, 1946.
34.
Shivalkar B, van Loon J, Wieland MD, et al: Variable
effects of explosive or gradual increase of intracranial pressure on myocardial structure
and function. Circulation 87:230, 1993.
35.
Power BM, Van Heerden PV: The physiological changes
associated with brain death—Current concepts and implications for treatment
of the brain dead organ donor. Anaesth Intensive Care 23:26, 1995.
36.
Scheinkestel CD, Tuxen DV, Cooper DJ, et al: Medical
management of the (potential) organ donor. Anaesth Intensive Care 23:51, 1995.
37.
Kinoshita Y, Yahata K, Yoshioka T, et al: Long-term
renal preservation after brain death maintained with vasopressin and epinephrine.
Transpl Int 3:15, 1990.
38.
Brooks CM: Reflex activation of the sympathetic
system in the spinal cat. Am J Physiol 106:251, 1933.
39.
Wetzel RC, Setzer N, Stiff JL, et al: Hemodynamic
responses in brain dead organ donor patients. Anesth Analg 64:125, 1985.
40.
Young PJ, Matta BF: Anaesthesia for organ donation
in the brainstem dead—Why bother?. Anaesthesia 55:105, 2000.
41.
Rodbard S: Body temperature, blood pressure, and
hypothalamus. Science 108:413, 1948.
42.
Magoun HW, Harrison F, Brobeck, Ranson SW: Activation
of heat loss mechanisms by local heating of the brain. J Neurophysiol 1:101, 1938.
43.
Ström G: Influence of local thermal stimulation
on the hypothalamus of the cat on cutaneous blood flow and respiratory rate. Acta
Physiol Scand 20(Suppl 70):47, 1950.
44.
Ström G: Effect of hypothalamic cooling on
cutaneous blood flow in the unanesthetized dog. Acta Physiol Scand 21:271, 1950.
45.
Jørgensen EO: Spinal man after brain death.
The unilateral extension-pronation reflex of the upper limb as an indication of
brain death. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 28:259, 1973.
46.
Hall GM, Mashiter K, Lumley, Robson JG: Hypothalamic-pituitary
function in the "brain-dead" patient. Lancet 2:1259, 1980.
47.
Schrader H, Krogness K, Aakvaag A, et al: Changes
of pituitary hormones in brain death. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 52:239, 1980.
48.
Sugimoto T, Sakano, T Kinoshita Y, et al: Morphological
and functional alterations of the hypothalamic-pituitary system in brain death with
long term bodily living. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 115:31, 1992.
49.
Zaloga GP: Endocrine function after brain death.
Crit Care Med 18:785, 1990.
50.
Howlett TA, Keogh AM, Perry L, et al: Anterior
and posterior pituitary function in brainstem-dead donors: A possible role for hormonal
replacement therapy, Transplantation 47:828, 1989.
51.
Cooper DK, Novitzky D, Wicomb WN: The pathophysiological
effects of brain death on potential donor organs, with particular reference to the
heart. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 71:261, 1989.
52.
Harms J, Isemer FE, Kolenda H: Hormonal alteration
and pituitary function during course of brainstem death in potential organ donors.
Transplant Proc 23:2614, 1991.
53.
Novitsky D, Cooper DK, Reichart B: Haemodynamic
and metabolic responses to hormonal therapy in brain-dead potential organ donors.
Transplantation 43:852, 1987.
54.
Goarin JP, Cohen S, Riou B, et al: The effects
of triiodothyronine on haemodynamic status and cardiac function in potential heart
donors. Anesth Analg 83:41, 1996.
55.
McConnell EM: The arterial blood supply of the
human hypophysis cerebri. Anat Rec 115:175, 1953.
56.
Leclercq TA, Grisoli F: Arterial blood supply
of the normal human pituitary gland: An anatomical study. J Neurosurg 58:678, 1983.
57.
Yokota H, Nakazawa S, Shimura T, et al: Hypothalamic
and pituitary function in brain death. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 31:881, 1991.
58.
Arita K, Uozumi T, Oki S, et al: The function
of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis in brain dead patients. Acta Neurochir (Wien)
123:64, 1993.
59.
Amado JA, Lopez-Espadas F, Vazquez-Barquero A,
et al: Blood levels of cytokines in brain-dead patients: Relationship with circulating
hormones and acute-phase reactants. Metabolism 44:812, 1995.
60.
Lopau K, Mark J, Schramm L, et al: Hormonal changes
in brain death and immune activation in the donor. Transpl Int 13: S282, 2000.
61.
Plenz G, Eschert H, Erren M, et al: The interleukin-6/interleukin-6
receptor system is activated in donor hearts. J Am Coll Cardiol 39:1508, 2002.
62.
Ropper AH: Unusual spontaneous movements in brain-dead
patients. Neurology 34:1089, 1984.
63.
Wijidicks EF: Determining brain death in adults.
Neurology 45:1003, 1995.
64.
Jeret JS, Benjamin JL: Risk of hypotension during
apnea testing. Arch Neurol 51:595, 1994.
65.
Bar-Joseph G, Bar-Lavie Y, Zonis Z: Tension pneumothorax
during apnea testing for the determination of brain death. Anesthesiology 89:1250,
1998.
66.
Goudreau JL, Wijdicks EF, Emery SF: Complications
during apnea testing in the determination of brain death: Predisposing factors.
Neurology 55:1945, 2000.
67.
Nunn JF: Control of breathing. In
Applied Physiology, 3rd ed. London, Butterworths, 1987, p 72.
68.
Power DJ, Darby JM, Grenvik A: Controversies in
brain death certification. In Ayres SM, Grenvik
A, Holbrook PR, Shoemaker WC (eds): Textbook of Critical Care, 3rd ed. Philadelphia,
WB Saunders, 1995, pp 1579.
69.
Granford RE, Smith DR: Consciousness: The most
critical moral (constitutional) standard for human personhood. Am J Law Med 13:233,
1987.
70.
Lizza JP: Persons and death: What's metaphysically
wrong with our current statutory definition of death? J Med Philos 18:351, 1993.
71.
Young B, Blume W, Lynch A: Brain death and the
persistent vegetative state: Similarities and contrasts. Can J Neurol Sci 16:388,
1989.
72.
Andrews K, Murphy L, Munday R, et al: Misdiagnosis
of the vegetative state: Retrospective study in a rehabilitation unit. Br Med J
313:13, 1996.
73.
Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, American
Medical Association: The use of anencephalic neonates as organ donors. JAMA 273:1614,
1995.
74.
Diaz JH: The anencephalic organ donor: A challenge
to existing moral and statutory laws. Crit Care Med 21:1781, 1993.
75.
Plows CW: Reconsideration of AMA opinion on anencephalic
neonates as organ donors. JAMA 275:443, 1996.
76.
Goodwin WE, Kaufman JJ, Mims MM, et al: Human
renal transplantation. I. Clinical experiences with six cases of renal homotransplantations.
J Urol 89:13, 1963.
77.
Kantrowitz A, Haller JD, Joos H, et al: Transplantation
of the heart in an infant and an adult. Am J Cardiol 22:782, 1968.
78.
Cabasson J, Blanc WA, Joos HA: The anencephalic
infant as a possible donor for cardiac transplantation. Clin Pediatr 8:86, 1969.
79.
Steinberg A, Katz E, Sprung CL: Use of anencephalic
infants as organ donors. Crit Care Med 21:1787, 1993.
80.
Holzgreve W, Beller FK, Buchholz B, et al: Kidney
transplantation from anencephalic donors. N Engl J Med 316:1069, 1987.
81.
Sytsma SE: Anencephalics as organ sources. Theor
Med 17:19, 1996.
82.
McQuillen MP: Anencephalic infants as organ donors.
JAMA 274:1758, 1995.
83.
Khan JH: Anencephalic infants as organ donors
[letter, comment]. JAMA 274:1758, 1995.
84.
Ivan LP: Spinal reflexes in cerebral death. Neurology
23:650, 1973.
85.
Saposnik G, Bueri JA, Maurino J, et al: Spontaneous
and reflex movements in brain death. Neurology 54:221, 2000.
86.
Schwartz JA, Baxter J, Brill DR: Diagnosis of
brain death in children by radionuclide cerebral imaging. Pediatrics 73:14, 1984.
87.
Moshé SL, Alvarez LA: Diagnosis of brain
death in children. J Clin Neurophysiol 3:239, 1986.
88.
Task Force for the Determination of Brain Death
in Children: Guidelines for the determination of brain death in children. Neurology
37:1077, 1987.
89.
Farrell MM, Levin DL: Brain death in the pediatric
patients: Historical, sociological, medical, religious, cultural, legal, and ethical
considerations. Crit Care Med 21:1951, 1993.
90.
Ashwal S: Brain death in early infancy. J Heart
Lung Transplant 12(Pt 2):S176, 1993.
91.
Ashwal S: Brain death in the newborn: Current
perspectives. Clin Perinatol 24:859, 1997.
92.
Volpe JJ: Brain death determination in the newborn.
Pediatrics 80:293, 1987.
93.
Pasternak JF, Volpe JJ: Full recovery from prolonged
brainstem failure following intraventricular hemorrhage. J Pediatr 95:1046, 1979.
94.
Scher MS, Barabas RE, Barmada MA: Clinical examination
findings in neonates with the absence of electrocerebral activity: An acute or chronic
encephalopathic state? J Perinatol 16:455, 1996.
95.
Mejia RE, Pollack MM: Variability in brain death
determination practices in children. JAMA 274:550, 1995.
96.
Ashwal S, Schneider S: Pediatric brain death:
Current perspectives. Adv Pediatr 38:181, 1991.
97.
Segura T, Jimenez P, Jerez P, et al: Prolonged
clinical pattern of brain death in patients under barbiturate sedation: Usefulness
of transcranial Doppler. Neurologia 17:219, 2002.
98.
Guideline Three: Minimum technical standards for
EEG recording in suspected cerebral death. J Clin Neurophysiol 11:10, 1994.
99.
Ciappa KH, Hock DB: Electrophysiologic monitoring.
In Ropper AH (ed): Neurological and Neurosurgical
Intensive Care. New York, Raven Press, 1993, pp 147.
100.
Stohr M, Trost E, Ullrich A, et al: Significance
of early acoustic evoked potentials in the diagnosis of brain death. Dtsch Med Wochenschr
111:1515, 1986.
101.
Nau R, Prange HW, Klingelhoéfer J, et al:
Results of four technical investigations in fifty clinically brain dead patients.
Intensive Care Med 18:82, 1992.
102.
Buchner H, Ferbert A, Bruckmann H, et al: Validity
of early acoustically-evoked potentials in the diagnosis of brain death. EEG EMG
Z Elektroenzephlogr Verwandte Geb 17:117, 1986.
103.
Facco E, Casartelli-Liviero M, Munari M, et al:
Short latency evoked potentials: New criteria for brain death? J Neurol Neurosurg
Psychiatry 53:351, 1990.
104.
Biniek R, Ferbert A, Buchner H, et al: Loss of
brainstem acoustic evoked potentials with spontaneous breathing in a patient with
supratentorial lesion. Eur Neurol 30:38, 1990.
105.
Facco E, Munari M, Baratto F, et al: Multimodality
evoked potentials (auditory, somatosensory and motor) in coma. Neurophysiol Clin
23:237, 1993.
106.
Sonoo M, Tsai-Shozawa Y, Aoki M, et al: N18 in
median somatosensory evoked potentials: A new indicator of medullary function useful
for the diagnosis of brain death. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 67:374, 1999.
107.
Sonoo M: Anatomic origin and clinical application
of the widespread N18 potential in median nerve somatosensory evoked potentials.
J Clin Neurophysiol 17:258, 2000.
108.
Swedish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs:
The concept of death. Report of the Swedish Committee on Defining Death. Stockholm,
Sweden, Swedish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, 1984.
109.
Vatne KP, Nakstad P, Lundar T: Digital subtraction
angiography (DAS) in the evaluation of brain death: A comparison of conventional
cerebral angiography with intravenous and intraarterial DAS. Neuroradiology 27:155,
1985.
110.
Louvier N, Combes JC, Nicolas F, et al: Cerebral
angiography must have medicolegal value for brain death confirmation in France.
Transplant Proc 28:377, 1996.
111.
Van Bunnen Y, Delcour C, Wery D, et al: Intravenous
digital subtraction angiography: A criterion of brain death. Ann Radiol 32:279,
1989.
112.
Braum M, Ducrocq X, Huot JC, et al: Intravenous
angiography in brain death: Report of 140 patients. Neuroradiology 39:400, 1997.
113.
Patel YP, Gupta SM, Batson R, et al: Brain death:
Confirmation by radionuclide cerebral angiography. Clin Nucl Med 13:438, 1988.
114.
Monsein LH: The imaging of brain death. Anaesth
Intensive Care 23:44, 1995.
115.
Spieth ME, Ansari AN, Kawada TK, et al: Direct
comparison of Tc-99m DTPA and Tc-99m HMPAO for evaluating brain death. Clin Nucl
Med 19:867, 1994.
116.
Wilson K, Gordon L Selby JB Sr: The diagnosis
of brain death with Tc-99m HMPAO. Clin Nucl Med 18:428, 1993.
117.
de la Riva A, Gonzalez FM, Llamas Elvira JM, et
al: Diagnosis of brain death: Superiority of perfusion studies with 99Tcm-HMPAO
over conventional radionuclide cerebral angiography. Br J Radiol 65:289, 1992.
118.
Bonetti MG, Ciritella P, Valle G, et al: 99m
Tc
HM-PAO brain perfusion SPECT in brain death. Neuroradiology 37:365, 1995.
119.
Wieler H, Marohl K, Kaiser KP: Tc-99m HMPAO cerebral
scintigraphy: A reliable, noninvasive method for determination of brain death.
Clin Nucl Med 18:104, 1993.
120.
Valle G, Ciritella P, Bonetti MG, et al: Consideration
of brain death on SPECT cerebral perfusion study. Clin Nucl Med 18:953, 1993.
121.
Facco E, Zucchetta P, Munari M, et al: 99m
Tc-HMPAO
SPECT in the diagnosis of brain death. Intensive Care Med 24:991, 1998.
122.
Tan WS, Wilbur AC, Jafar JJ, et al: Brain death:
Use of dynamic CT and intravenous digital subtraction angiography. Am J Neuroradiol
8:123, 1987.
123.
Arnold H, Kuhne D, Rohr W, et al: Contrast bolus
technique with rapid CT scanning: A reliable diagnostic tool for the determination
of brain death. Neuroradiology 22:129, 1981.
124.
Johnson DW, Stringer WA, Marks MP, et al: Stable
xenon CT cerebral blood flow imaging: Rationale for and role in clinical decision
making. Am J Neuroradiol 12:201, 1991.
125.
Pistoia F, Johason DW, Darby JM, et al: The role
of xenon CT measurements of cerebral blood flow in the clinical determination of
brain death. Am J Neuroradiol 12:97, 1991.
126.
Darby J, Yonas H, Brenner RP: Brainstem death
with persistent EEG activity: Evaluation by xenon-enhanced computed tomography.
Crit Care Med 15:519, 1987.
127.
Matsumura A, Meguro K, Tsurushima H, et al: Magnetic
resonance imaging of brain death. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 36:166, 1996.
128.
Ishii K, Onuma T, Kinoshita T, et al: Brain death:
MR and MR angiography. Am J Neuroradiol 17:731, 1996.
129.
Lee DH, Nathanson JA, Fox AJ, et al: Magnetic
resonance imaging of brain death. Can Assoc Radiol J 46:174, 1995.
130.
Orrison WW Jr, Champlin AM, Kesterson OL, et al:
MR "hot nose sign" and "intravascular enhancement sign" in brain death. Am J Neuroradiol
15:913, 1994.
131.
Jones KM, Barnes PD: MR diagnosis of brain death.
Am J Neuroradiol 13:65, 1992.
132.
Garde K, Mortensen AC, Toft PB, et al: Phosphorous
and proton spectroscopy in relation to near incarceration and incarceration of the
human brain. Acta Radiol 35:197, 1994.
133.
Aichner F, Felber S, Birbamer G, et al: Magnetic
resonance: A noninvasive approach to metabolism, circulation, and morphology in
human brain death. Ann Neurol 32:507, 1992.
134.
Terk MR, Gober JR, DeGiorgio C, et al: Brain
death in the neonate: Assessment with P-31 MR spectroscopy. Radiology 182:582,
1992.
135.
Kato T, Tokumaru A, O'uchi T, et al: Assessment
of brain death in children by means of P-31 MR spectroscopy: Preliminary note.
Work in progress. Radiology 179:95, 1991.
136.
Lövbald K-O, Bassetti C: Diffusion-weighted
magnetic resonance imaging in brain death. Stroke 31:539, 2000.
137.
Klingelhofer J, Conrad B, Benecke R, et al: Evaluation
of intracranial pressure from transcranial Doppler studies in cerebral disease.
J Neurol 235:159, 1988.
138.
Hassler W, Steinmetr H, Gawlowski J: Transcranial
Doppler ultrasonography in raised intracranial pressure and intracranial circulatory
arrest. J Neurosurg 68:745, 1988.
139.
Feri M, Ralli L, Felici M, et al: Transcranial
Doppler and brain death diagnosis. Crit Care Med 22:1120, 1994.
140.
Petty GW, Mohr JP, Pedley TR, et al: The role
of transcranial Doppler in confirming brain death: Sensitivity, specificity, and
suggestions for performance and interpretation. Neurology 40:300, 1990.
141.
Momose T, Nishikawa J, Watanabe T, et al: Clinical
application of 18
F-FDG-PET in patients with brain death. Kaku Igaku 29:1139,
1992.
142.
Meyer MA: Evaluating brain death with positron
emission tomography: Case report on dynamic imaging of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose activity
after intravenous bolus injection. J Neuroimaging 6:117, 1996.
143.
Medlock MD, Hanigan WC, Cruse RP: Dissociation
of cerebral blood flow, glucose metabolism, and electrical activity in pediatric
brain death. J Neurosurg 79:752, 1993.
144.
Conci F, Procaccio F, Arosio M, et al: Viscero-somatic
and viscero-visceral reflexes in brain death. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 49:695,
1986.
145.
Van Norman GA: A matter of life and death. Anesthesiology
91:275, 1999.