Figure 1-4 A, "Operating on the Upper Arm" is taken from the textbook entitled Chirurgia by Theodoric of Cervia. It is noteworthy because it shows an intense focus by the patient directly into the gaze of an assistant. Although hypnosis is a 19th century term and its use for pain relief during surgery was not widely promoted until then, the induction of trances and altered states of being was known to the ancients. Theodoric apparently realized the value of diverting the patient's attention away from pain of surgery. B, Inhalation of the vapor of alcohol was tried in the Middle Ages as a method for pain relief during surgery. The inhaler shown here is remarkably similar to that used by William T. G. Morton on October 16, 1846, with ether as the volatile agent (compare with Fig. 1-6 ).