Previous Next



REFERENCES

1. Halpern NA, Bettes L, Greenstein R: Federal and nationwide intensive care units and healthcare costs: 1986–1992. Crit Care Med 22:2001–2007, 1994.

2. Angus DC, Kelley MA, Schmitz RJ, et al: Caring for the critically ill patient. Current and projected workforce requirements for care of the critically ill and patients with pulmonary disease: Can we meet the requirements of an aging population? JAMA 284:2762–2770, 2000.

3. Pronovost PJ, Angus DC, Dorman T, et al: Physician staffing patterns and clinical outcomes in critically ill patients: A systematic review. JAMA 288:2151–2162, 2002.

4. Carson SS, Stocking C, Podsadecki T, et al: Effects of organizational change in the medical intensive care unit of a teaching hospital. JAMA 276:322–328, 1996.

5. Ghorra S, Reinert SE, Cioffi W, et al: Analysis of the effect of conversion from open to closed surgical intensive care unit. Ann Surg 229:163–171, 1999.

6. Pronovost PJ, Jenckes MW, Dorman T, et al: Organizational characteristics of intensive care units related to outcomes of abdominal aortic surgery. JAMA 281:1310–1317, 1999.

7. Gropper M, Matthay MA: Look before you leap: How do intensivists improve care for critically ill patients? Am J Med 116:206–207, 2004.

8. Guidelines for the definition of an intensivist and the practice of critical care medicine. Guidelines Committee, Society of Critical Care Medicine. Crit Care Med 20:540–542, 1992.

9. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. N Engl J Med 342:1301–1308, 2000.

10. Kollef MH, Horst HM, Prang L, Brock WA: Reducing the duration of mechanical ventilation: Three examples of change in the intensive care unit. New Horiz 6:52–60, 1998.

11. Holcomb BW, Wheeler AP, Ely EW: New ways to reduce unnecessary variation and improve outcomes in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Crit Care 7:304–311, 2001.

12. MacIntyre NR, Cook DJ, Ely EW Jr, et al: Evidence-based guidelines for weaning and discontinuing ventilatory support: A collective task force facilitated by the American College of Chest Physicians; the American Association for Respiratory Care; and the American College of Critical Care Medicine. Chest 120(Suppl):375S–395S, 2001.

13. Thorens JB, Kaelin RM, Jolliet P, Chevrolet JC: Influence of the quality of nursing on the duration of weaning from mechanical ventilation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Crit Care Med 23:1807–1815, 1995.

14. Ashbaugh DG, Bigelow DB, Petty TL, Levine BE: Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet 2:319–323, 1967.

15. Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL, et al: The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS: Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149:818–824, 1994.

16. Luhr OR, Antonsen K, Karlsson M, et al: Incidence and mortality after acute respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome in Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland. The ARF Study Group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 159:1849–1861, 1999.

17. Brower RG, Ware LB, Berthiaume Y, Matthay MA: Treatment of ARDS. Chest 120:1347–1367, 2001.

18. Suchyta MR, Clemmer TP, Elliott CG, et al: The adult respiratory distress syndrome: A report of survival and modifying factors. Chest 101:1074–1079, 1992.

19. Montgomery AB, Stager MA, Carrico CJ, Hudson LD: Causes of mortality in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 132:485–489, 1985.

20. Milberg JA, Davis DR, Steinberg KP, Hudson LD: Improved survival of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): 1983–1993. JAMA 273:306–309, 1995.

21. Tsuno K, Miura K, Takeya M, et al: Histopathologic pulmonary changes from mechanical ventilation at high peak airway pressures. Am Rev Respir Dis 143:1115–1120, 1991.

22. Kolobow T, Moretti MP, Fumagalli R, et al: Severe impairment in lung function induced by high peak airway pressure during mechanical ventilation. An experimental study. Am Rev Respir Dis 135:312–315, 1987.

23. Slutsky AS, Tremblay LN: Multiple system organ failure. Is mechanical ventilation a contributing factor? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 157:1721–1725, 1998.


2805


24. Hickling KG, Henderson SJ, Jackson R: Low mortality associated with low volume pressure limited ventilation with permissive hypercapnia in severe adult respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med 16:372–377, 1990.

25. Hickling KG, Walsh J, Henderson S, Jackson R: Low mortality rate in adult respiratory distress syndrome using low-volume, pressure-limited ventilation with permissive hypercapnia: A prospective study. Crit Care Med 22:1568–1578, 1994.

26. Amato MB, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM, et al: Effect of a protective-ventilation strategy on mortality in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 338:347–354, 1998.

27. Brochard L, Roudot-Thoraval F, Roupie E, et al: Tidal volume reduction for prevention of ventilator-induced lung injury in acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Multicenter Trial Group on Tidal Volume reduction in ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:1831–1838, 1998.

28. Stewart TE, Meade MO, Cook DJ, et al: Evaluation of a ventilation strategy to prevent barotrauma in patients at high risk for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Pressure- and Volume-Limited Ventilation Strategy Group. N Engl J Med 338:355–361, 1998.

29. Brower RG, Shanholtz CB, Fessler HE, et al: Prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial comparing traditional versus reduced tidal volume ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients. Crit Care Med 27:1492–1498, 1999.

30. Ware LB, Matthay MA: The acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 342:1334–1349, 2000.

31. Eisner MD, Thompson T, Hudson LD, et al: Efficacy of low tidal volume ventilation in patients with different clinical risk factors for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 164:231–236, 2001.

32. Ely EW, Baker AM, Evans GW, Haponik EF: The distribution of costs of care in mechanically ventilated patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Crit Care Med 28:408–413, 2000.

33. Epstein SK, Ciubotaru RL, Wong JB: Effect of failed extubation on the outcome of mechanical ventilation. Chest 112:186–192, 1997.

34. Esteban A, Alia I, Ibanez J, et al: Modes of mechanical ventilation and weaning: A national survey of Spanish hospitals. The Spanish Lung Failure Collaborative Group. Chest 106:1188–1193, 1994.

35. Venus B, Smith RA, Mathru M: National survey of methods and criteria used for weaning from mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 15:530–533, 1987.

36. Luce JM, Pierson DJ, Hudson LD: Intermittent mandatory ventilation. Chest 79:678–685, 1981.

37. Nathan SD, Ishaaya AM, Koerner SK, Belman MJ: Prediction of minimal pressure support during weaning from mechanical ventilation. Chest 103:1215–1219, 1993.

38. Esteban A, Frutos F, Tobin MJ, et al: A comparison of four methods of weaning patients from mechanical ventilation. Spanish Lung Failure Collaborative Group. N Engl J Med 332:345–350, 1995.

39. Brochard L, Rauss A, Benito S, et al: Comparison of three methods of gradual withdrawal from ventilatory support during weaning from mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 150:896–903, 1994.

40. Mador MJ: Weaning parameters. Are they clinically useful? Chest 102:1642–1643, 1992.

41. Stoller JK, Mascha EJ, Kester L, Haney D: Randomized controlled trial of physician-directed versus respiratory therapy consult service-directed respiratory care to adult non-ICU inpatients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:1068–1075, 1998.

42. Ely EW, Baker AM, Dunagan DP, et al: Effect on the duration of mechanical ventilation of identifying patients capable of breathing spontaneously. N Engl J Med 335:1864–1869, 1996.

43. Kollef MH, Shapiro SD, Silver P, et al: A randomized, controlled trial of protocol-directed versus physician-directed weaning from mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 25:567–574, 1997.

44. Marelich GP, Murin S, Battistella F, et al: Protocol weaning of mechanical ventilation in medical and surgical patients by respiratory care practitioners and nurses: Effect on weaning time and incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 118:459–467, 2000.

45. Ely EW, Baker AM, Evans GW, Haponik EF: The prognostic significance of passing a daily screen of weaning parameters. Intensive Care Med 25:581–587, 1999.

46. Krieger BP, Ershowsky PF, Becker DA, Gazeroglu HB: Evaluation of conventional criteria for predicting successful weaning from mechanical ventilatory support in elderly patients. Crit Care Med 17:858–861, 1989.

47. Esteban A, Anzueto A, Alia I, et al: How is mechanical ventilation employed in the intensive care unit? An international utilization review. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161:1450–1458, 2000.

48. Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, et al: Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: Analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 29:1303–1310, 2001.

49. Rangel-Frausto MS, Pittet D, Costigan M, et al: The natural history of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS): A prospective study. JAMA 273:117–123, 1995.

50. Centers for Disease Control: Increase in National Hospital Discharge Survey rates for septicemia—United States, 1979–1987. JAMA 263:937–938, 1990.

51. Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al: Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 345:1368–1377, 2001.

52. Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, et al: Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 288:862–871, 2002.

53. Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, et al: Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 344:699–709, 2001.

54. Beal AL, Cerra FB: Multiple organ failure syndrome in the 1990s. Systemic inflammatory response and organ dysfunction. JAMA 271:226–233, 1994.

55. Gattinoni L, Brazzi L, Pelosi P, et al: A trial of goal-oriented hemodynamic therapy in critically ill patients. SVO2 Collaborative Group. N Engl J Med 333:1025–1032, 1995.

56. Hayes MA, Timmins AC, Yau EH, et al: Elevation of systemic oxygen delivery in the treatment of critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 330:1717–1722, 1994.

57. Boyd O, Grounds RM, Bennett ED: A randomized clinical trial of the effect of deliberate perioperative increase of oxygen delivery on mortality in high-risk surgical patients. JAMA 270:2699–2707, 1993.

58. Connors AF Jr, Speroff T, Dawson NV, et al: The effectiveness of right heart catheterization in the initial care of critically ill patients. SUPPORT Investigators. JAMA 276:889–897, 1996.

59. Richard C, Warszawski J, Anguel N, et al: Early use of the pulmonary artery catheter and outcomes in patients with shock and acute respiratory distress syndrome: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 290:2713–2720, 2003.

60. Sandham JD, Hull RD, Brant RF, et al: A randomized, controlled trial of the use of pulmonary-artery catheters in high-risk surgical patients. N Engl J Med 348:5–14, 2003.

61. Yu DT, Platt R, Lanken PN, et al: Relationship of pulmonary artery catheter use to mortality and resource utilization in patients with severe sepsis. Crit Care Med 31:2734–2741, 2003.

62. Network AC: Fluids and Catheters Treatment Trial, National Institutes of Health; unpublished data.

63. Intensive Care National Audit and Research (ICNANR) Centre: Pulmonary Artery Catheters in Patient Management in Intensive Care, National Health Service, UK, unpublished data.

64. Lefering R, Neugebauer EA: Steroid controversy in sepsis and septic shock: A meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 23:1294–1303, 1995.

65. Cronin L, Cook DJ, Carlet J, et al: Corticosteroid treatment for sepsis: A critical appraisal and meta-analysis of the literature. Crit Care Med 23:1430–1439, 1995.
2806


66. Riedemann NC, Guo RF, Ward PA: Novel strategies for the treatment of sepsis. Nat Med 9:517–524, 2003.

67. Hotchkiss RS, Karl IE: The pathophysiology and treatment of sepsis. N Engl J Med 348:138–150, 2003.

68. Rothwell PM, Udwadia ZF, Lawler PG: Cortisol response to corticotropin and survival in septic shock. Lancet 337:582–583, 1991.

69. Molijn GJ, Spek JJ, van Uffelen JC, et al: Differential adaptation of glucocorticoid sensitivity of peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes in patients with sepsis or septic shock. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:1799–1803, 1995.

70. Annane D, Bellissant E, Sebille V, et al: Impaired pressor sensitivity to noradrenaline in septic shock patients with and without impaired adrenal function reserve. Br J Clin Pharmacol 46:589–597, 1998.

71. Bellissant E, Annane D: Effect of hydrocortisone on phenylephrine—Mean arterial pressure dose-response relationship in septic shock. Clin Pharmacol Ther 68:293–303, 2000.

72. Annane D, Sebille V, Troche G, et al: A 3-level prognostic classification in septic shock based on cortisol levels and cortisol response to corticotropin. JAMA 283:1038–1045, 2000.

73. Bollaert PE, Charpentier C, Levy B, et al: Reversal of late septic shock with supraphysiologic doses of hydrocortisone. Crit Care Med 26:645–650, 1998.

74. Briegel J, Forst H, Haller M, et al: Stress doses of hydrocortisone reverse hyperdynamic septic shock: A prospective, randomized, double-blind, single-center study. Crit Care Med 27:723–732, 1999.

75. Abraham E, Evans T: Corticosteroids and septic shock. JAMA 288:886–887, 2002.

76. Levi M, Ten Cate H: Disseminated intravascular coagulation. N Engl J Med 341:586–592, 1999.

77. Vervloet MG, Thijs LG, Hack CE: Derangements of coagulation and fibrinolysis in critically ill patients with sepsis and septic shock. Semin Thromb Hemost 24:33–44, 1998.

78. Powars DR, Rogers ZR, Patch MJ, et al: Purpura fulminans in meningococcemia: Association with acquired deficiencies of proteins C and S. N Engl J Med 317:571–572, 1987.

79. Esmon CT: The protein C anticoagulant pathway. Arterioscler Thromb 12:135–145, 1992.

80. Manns BJ, Lee H, Doig CJ, et al: An economic evaluation of activated protein C treatment for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 347:993–1000, 2002.

81. Richards MJ, Edwards JR, Culver DH, Gaynes RP: Nosocomial infections in medical intensive care units in the United States. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Crit Care Med 27:887–892, 1999.

82. Pingleton SK, Fagon JY, Leeper KV Jr: Patient selection for clinical investigation of ventilator-associated pneumonia: Criteria for evaluating diagnostic techniques. Chest 102:553S–556S, 1992.

83. Ibrahim EH, Tracy L, Hill C, et al: The occurrence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a community hospital: Risk factors and clinical outcomes. Chest 120:555–561, 2001.

84. Fagon JY, Chastre J, Hance AJ, et al: Nosocomial pneumonia in ventilated patients: A cohort study evaluating attributable mortality and hospital stay. Am J Med 94:281–288, 1993.

85. Chastre J, Fagon JY: Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165:867–903, 2002.

86. Baker AM, Meredith JW, Haponik EF: Pneumonia in intubated trauma patients. Microbiology and outcomes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 153:343–349, 1996.

87. George DL, Falk PS, Wunderink RG, et al: Epidemiology of ventilator-acquired pneumonia based on protected bronchoscopic sampling. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:1839–1847, 1998.

88. Heyland DK, Cook DJ, Griffith L, et al: The attributable morbidity and mortality of ventilator-associated pneumonia in the critically ill patient. The Canadian Critical Trials Group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 159:1249–1256, 1999.

89. Craven DE, Steger KA: Nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated adult patients: Epidemiology and prevention in 1996. Semin Respir Infect 11:32–53, 1996.

90. Hospital-acquired pneumonia in adults: Diagnosis, assessment of severity, initial antimicrobial therapy, and preventive strategies. A consensus statement, American Thoracic Society, November 1995. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 153:1711–1725, 1996.

91. Fagon JY, Chastre J, Wolff M, et al: Invasive and noninvasive strategies for management of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia: A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 132:621–630, 2000.

92. Papazian L, Thomas P, Garbe L, et al: Bronchoscopic or blind sampling techniques for the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152:1982–1991, 1995.

93. Bregeon F, Papazian L, Thomas P, et al: Diagnostic accuracy of protected catheter sampling in ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia. Eur Respir J 16:969–975, 2000.

94. Cook DJ, Reeve BK, Guyatt GH, et al: Stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients. Resolving discordant meta-analyses. JAMA 275:308–314, 1996.

95. Tryba M: Prophylaxis of stress ulcer bleeding: A meta-analysis. J Clin Gastroenterol 13(Suppl 2):S44–S55, 1991.

96. Cook DJ, Laine LA, Guyatt GH, Raffin TA: Nosocomial pneumonia and the role of gastric pH: A meta-analysis. Chest 100:7–13, 1991.

97. Drakulovic MB, Torres A, Bauer TT, et al: Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: A randomised trial. Lancet 354:1851–1858, 1999.

98. Mahul P, Auboyer C, Jospe R, et al: Prevention of nosocomial pneumonia in intubated patients: Respective role of mechanical subglottic secretions drainage and stress ulcer prophylaxis. Intensive Care Med 18:20–25, 1992.

99. Valles J, Artigas A, Rello J, et al: Continuous aspiration of subglottic secretions in preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 122:179–186, 1995.

100. Kollef MH, Skubas NJ, Sundt TM: A randomized clinical trial of continuous aspiration of subglottic secretions in cardiac surgery patients. Chest 116:1339–1346, 1999.

101. Collard HR, Saint S, Matthay MA: Prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: An evidence-based systematic review. Ann Intern Med 138:494–501, 2003.

102. Raad I: Intravascular-catheter-related infections. Lancet 351:893–898, 1998.

103. Merrer J, De Jonghe B, Golliot F, et al: Complications of femoral and subclavian venous catheterization in critically ill patients: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 286:700–707, 2001.

104. Veenstra DL, Saint S, Saha S, et al: Efficacy of antiseptic-impregnated central venous catheters in preventing catheter-related bloodstream infection: A meta-analysis. JAMA 281:261–267, 1999.

105. Raad I, Darouiche R, Dupuis J, et al: Central venous catheters coated with minocycline and rifampin for the prevention of catheter-related colonization and bloodstream infections. A randomized, double-blind trial. The Texas Medical Center Catheter Study Group. Ann Intern Med 127:267–274, 1997.

106. Collignon PJ: Intravascular catheter associated sepsis: A common problem. The Australian Study on Intravascular Catheter Associated Sepsis. Med J Aust 161:374–378, 1994.

107. Heiselman D: Nosocomial bloodstream infections in the critically ill. JAMA 272:1819–1820, 1994.

108. Arnow PM, Quimosing EM, Beach M: Consequences of intravascular catheter sepsis. Clin Infect Dis 16:778–784, 1993.

109. Maki DG, Stolz SM, Wheeler S, Mermel LA: Prevention of central venous catheter-related bloodstream infection by use of an antiseptic-impregnated catheter: A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 127:257–266, 1997.

110. Veenstra DL, Saint S, Sullivan SD: Cost-effectiveness of antiseptic-impregnated central venous catheters for the prevention of catheter-related bloodstream infection. JAMA 282:554–560, 1999.

111. Darouiche RO, Raad II, Heard SO, et al: A comparison of two antimicrobial-impregnated central venous catheters. Catheter Study Group. N Engl J Med 340:1–8, 1999.
2807


112. McGee DC, Gould MK: Preventing complications of central venous catheterization. N Engl J Med 348:1123–1133, 2003.

113. Raad II, Hohn DC, Gilbreath BJ, et al: Prevention of central venous catheter-related infections by using maximal sterile barrier precautions during insertion. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 15:231–238, 1994.

114. Pearson ML: Guideline for prevention of intravascular device-related infections. Part I. Intravascular device-related infections: An overview. The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Am J Infect Control 24:262–277, 1996.

115. Mimoz O, Pieroni L, Lawrence C, et al: Prospective, randomized trial of two antiseptic solutions for prevention of central venous or arterial catheter colonization and infection in intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 24:1818–1823, 1996.

116. Randolph AG, Cook DJ, Gonzales CA, Pribble CG: Ultrasound guidance for placement of central venous catheters: A meta-analysis of the literature. Crit Care Med 24:2053–2058, 1996.

117. Lefrant JY, Cuvillon P, Benezet JF, et al: Pulsed Doppler ultrasonography guidance for catheterization of the subclavian vein: A randomized study. Anesthesiology 88:1195–1201, 1998.

118. Shojania KG: Making Health Care Safer: A Critical Analysis of Patient Safety Practices. Rockville, MD, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Department of Health and Human Services, 2001.

119. Maki DG, Stolz SS, Wheeler S, Mermel LA: A prospective, randomized trial of gauze and two polyurethane dressings for site care of pulmonary artery catheters: Implications for catheter management. Crit Care Med 22:1729–1737, 1994.

120. Raad I, Umphrey J, Khan A, et al: The duration of placement as a predictor of peripheral and pulmonary arterial catheter infections. J Hosp Infect 23:17–26, 1993.

121. Cook D, Randolph A, Kernerman P, et al: Central venous catheter replacement strategies: A systematic review of the literature. Crit Care Med 25:1417–1424, 1997.

122. Cobb DK, High KP, Sawyer RG, et al: A controlled trial of scheduled replacement of central venous and pulmonary-artery catheters. N Engl J Med 327:1062–1068, 1992.

123. Novaes MA, Knobel E, Bork AM, et al: Stressors in ICU: Perception of the patient, relatives and health care team. Intensive Care Med 25:1421–1426, 1999.

124. Puntillo KA: Pain experiences of intensive care unit patients. Heart Lung 19:526–533, 1990.

125. Simini B: Patients' perceptions of intensive care. Lancet 354:571–572, 1999.

126. Stein-Parbury J, McKinley S: Patients' experiences of being in an intensive care unit: A select literature review. Am J Crit Care 9:20–27, 2000.

127. Schelling G, Stoll C, Haller M, et al: Health-related quality of life and posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 26:651–659, 1998.

128. Kress JP, Pohlman AS, O'Connor MF, Hall JB: Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med 342:1471–1477, 2000.

129. Ramsay MA, Savege TM, Simpson BR, Goodwin R: Controlled sedation with alphaxalone-alphadolone. BMJ 2:656–659, 1974.

130. Hansen-Flaschen J, Cowen J, Polomano RC: Beyond the Ramsay scale: Need for a validated measure of sedating drug efficacy in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 22:732–733, 1994.

131. Riker RR, Fraser GL, Cox PM: Continuous infusion of haloperidol controls agitation in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 22:433–440, 1994.

132. Riker RR, Picard JT, Fraser GL: Prospective evaluation of the Sedation-Agitation Scale for adult critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 27:1325–1329, 1999.

133. Clemmer TP, Wallace JC, Spuhler VJ, et al: Origins of the Motor Activity Assessment Scale score: A multi-institutional process. Crit Care Med 28:3124, 2000.

134. Devlin JW, Boleski G, Mlynarek M, et al: Motor Activity Assessment Scale: A valid and reliable sedation scale for use with mechanically ventilated patients in an adult surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 27:1271–1275, 1999.

135. Devlin JW, Fraser GL, Kanji S, Riker RR: Sedation assessment in critically ill adults. Ann Pharmacother 35:1624–1632, 2001.

136. Brook AD, Ahrens TS, Schaiff R, et al: Effect of a nursing-implemented sedation protocol on the duration of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 27:2609–2615, 1999.

137. Mascia MF, Koch M, Medicis JJ: Pharmacoeconomic impact of rational use guidelines on the provision of analgesia, sedation, and neuromuscular blockade in critical care. Crit Care Med 28:2300–2306, 2000.

138. Jacobi J, Fraser G, Coursin D, Riker R, et al: Clinical practice guidelines for the sustained use of sedatives and analgesics in the critically ill adult. Crit Care Med 30:119–141, 2002.

139. Meszaros K, Lang CH, Bagby GJ, Spitzer JJ: Contribution of different organs to increased glucose consumption after endotoxin administration. J Biol Chem 262:10965–10970, 1987.

140. Cerra FB: Hypermetabolism, organ failure, and metabolic support. Surgery 101:1–14, 1987.

141. Wolfe RR, Herndon DN, Jahoor F, et al: Effect of severe burn injury on substrate cycling by glucose and fatty acids. N Engl J Med 317:403–408, 1987.

142. Wolfe RR, Jahoor F, Herndon DN, Miyoshi H: Isotopic evaluation of the metabolism of pyruvate and related substrates in normal adult volunteers and severely burned children: Effect of dichloroacetate and glucose infusion. Surgery 110:54–67, 1991.

143. Lang CH, Dobrescu C, Meszaros K: Insulin-mediated glucose uptake by individual tissues during sepsis. Metabolism 39:1096–1107, 1990.

144. Mizock BA: Alterations in carbohydrate metabolism during stress: A review of the literature. Am J Med 98:75–84, 1995.

145. McCowen KC, Malhotra A, Bistrian BR: Stress-induced hyperglycemia. Crit Care Clin 17:107–124, 2001.

146. Perner A, Nielsen SE, Rask-Madsen J: High glucose impairs superoxide production from isolated blood neutrophils. Intensive Care Med 29:642–645, 2003.

147. Fietsam R Jr, Bassett J, Glover JL: Complications of coronary artery surgery in diabetic patients. Am Surg 57:551–557, 1991.

148. O'Neill PA, Davies I, Fullerton KJ, Bennett D: Stress hormone and blood glucose response following acute stroke in the elderly. Stroke 22:842–847, 1991.

149. Scott JF, Robinson GM, French JM, et al: Glucose potassium insulin infusions in the treatment of acute stroke patients with mild to moderate hyperglycemia: The Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST). Stroke 30:793–799, 1999.

150. Malmberg K: Prospective randomised study of intensive insulin treatment on long term survival after acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes mellitus. DIGAMI (Diabetes Mellitus, Insulin Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction) Study Group. BMJ 314:1512–1515, 1997.

Previous Next